Influence of Socio-Demographic Background on the Self-Esteem of Secondary Schoolsꞌ Adolescent Girls
Marwa S El-sheikh1, Rehab F Abdel-Hady2, Hanaa Hamdy Ali 3, Eman Shokry AbdAllah 4
1Assistant Lecturer, Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, Zagazig University, Egypt,
2Lecturer of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, Zagazig University, Egypt,
3Assistant Professor of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, Faculty of Nursing Zagazig University, Cairo, Egypt,
4Professor of Community and Mental Health Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, Zagazig University, Egypt,
Email: 1[email protected], 2[email protected],
3[email protected] 4[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Background: Much research has been conducted on self-esteem, although mainly in the West. Findings indicate that self-esteem drops sharply in adolescence, more so in girls than boys. The development of adolescent in totality cannot write off the value and power socioeconomic background has on them. The influence is believed to be intertwined and espouses many developmental tasks of adolescents‟ including self-esteem. Aim: The aim of this study is to assess the influence of socio-demographic background on the self-esteem of secondary schoolsꞌ adolescent girls. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study design was conducted at the governmental secondary school for girls in ElSinbellawin city, Dakhlia governorate, Egypt from the beginning of November, 2018 to the middle of January, 2019. A total number of 187 students were randomly selected from the governmental school.
Socio-demographic data was obtained through self-report questionnaire and self- esteem was assessed using 10- item Rosenberg‟s Self-Esteem Scales (RSES). The results showed that the mean age of the respondents was 15.7±0.75. The means core of self-esteem among the students was 20.1±4.5. A total of 120 (64.2%) of the participants had high self- esteem, 59 (31.6%) had moderate self-esteem whereas, only8 (4.3%) had low self-esteem. The results also showed statistically significant negative correlation between self-esteem and studentsꞌ age(r = -0.163, P=0.03), scholastic grade(r = -0.223, P=.003) and residence (r = -0.209, P=0.007). It can be conclusion: The study showed that; high self- esteem is more common among younger adolescents aged 14-15 and rural resided ones. Therefore, it is recommendation: According to the results due to the present study, we recommend that;
schools should incorporate self-esteem activities into the regular school health curriculum, beside the need for a school web-based provision of information aimed at proactively increasing students‟ self-esteem and skills for dealing with different situations.
KEYWORDS: Self-esteem; socio-demographics; secondary schools.
INTRODUCTION
How we see and understand ourselves is a complex process involving various developmental stages and attainment of certain needs. Our beliefs, abilities, attitudes, behaviors, and relationships create our sense of self, but how we evaluate ourselves and our level of self- worth makes up our self-esteem, both of which can fluctuate over time (Magdalena 2015).
Self-esteem is a crucial important factor in the development process of adolescents sine the way in which they perceive themselves have influence on their social, academic and emotional development (Masselink, Van Roekel et al. 2018). Self-esteems a psychological term was first coined by the American philosopher and psychologist „William James‟ in 1890 who described it as; the characteristic of being successful and competent. Self-esteem is based completely on self-evaluations regarding our own actions and who we are. This is detected by the pace at which our expected potential is realized. Our assertions divided by our accomplishments equals our self-esteem (Yildiz 2017). Still other psychologists like Rosenberg; defined self-esteem in terms of „totality of an individual's thoughts and feelings with reference to himself as an object‟. It is the person‟s subjective evaluation of his or her worth and does not necessarily reflect objective characteristics of the person, or how the person is seen by others (Ndima 2017). Thus, this evaluation results into either a high or positive self-esteem when one perceives oneself as capable or fortunate; or low self-esteem defined as an unfortunate view of oneself (Soňa 2017).The adolescent's attitude and actions, both at home and at school, represent his or her level of self-esteem. Adolescents possessing high level of self-esteem are more likely to have higher well-being, better social relations, communicate positive feelings about themselves, ability of influencing positively the opinion and behavior of others; and tackling new situations positively and confidently communicate positive feelings about themselves (Fatima, Niazi et al. 2017).Whereas, teenagers with low self-esteem demonstrate lack of confidence, uncertainty, experience negative feelings and maladjustment. Therefore, low self-esteem has found to be associated with a number of psychological features which play an important role in adolescent development and the transition to adulthood including depression, anxiety (Akdemir, Çak et al. 2016). The formation of self-esteem implies a long process that can show systematic, gradual change over the life span. Its evolution in time involves downfall periods especially during transition periods; from one stage to another, or from one status to another e.g., in adolescence (due to the psycho-somatic changes), or grand age, as a consequence of the change in status, and retirement due to the change in tasks and responsibilities (De Ruiter, Van Geert et al. 2017). Adolescence, depicted as a period of “storm and stress”, represents a dramatic developmental transition from childhood to adulthood. The World health Organization (WHO) put the age range from 10 to24 years, a stage of rapid change, not just physically, but also emotionally, mentally, and socially(Sawyer, Azzopardi et al. 2018). It is a period when a person becomes connected onto the society of adults and also the time when one is still searching and developing the so called “self”. This includes the task of establishing the attitudes, behavior and personality patterns. It has evolved immensely, particularly in their social facet (Garcia and Santiago 2017). Given the reorganization that takes place during adolescence, adolescents are prompted to show increased introspection in order to find out who they really are (and want to be), how they are perceived by their environment, and what
they want to do and achieve in their lives, in other words, they begin to search for their identity (Babore, Trumello et al. 2016). According to Erikson; without developing a positive self-esteem, this phenomenon will lead to later maladjustment and a sense of isolation during the stage of youth (Masselink, Van Roekel et al. 2018). According to self-development theory, the acquisition of a formal thinking ability from childhood to adolescence is a critical developmental change(Von Tetzchner 2018). The increasing formal thinking ability can greatly enhance adolescents‟ capacity to evaluate the self as an abstract and distinct being from a third person perspective and to incorporate others‟ opinions as well as social comparison information into their own self-judgment. Collectively, these developments aid in forming an increasingly realistic self-view(Cai, Wu et al. 2014). It is worth noting that;
secondary schools play a crucial role in the development of adolescents‟ self-esteem. During this period, youths evolve in a context where they implicitly and explicitly learn about themselves, while experiencing the major physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes of adolescence(Morin, Maïano et al. 2017). In addition, youths‟ lives at school may comprise stress-generating experiences (e.g., conflict with teachers, failures, rejection) as well as positive self-enhancing experiences (e.g., teachers‟ warmth and support, school success, peaceful learning environment) that can drastically influencing the way adolescents see themselves (Verhoeven, Poorthuis et al. 2019). Pointing to the reported risk factors for low self-esteem include female gender, low socioeconomic status, single-parent family structure, needing special health care, school violence, parental aggravation or family stress, overweight and obesity (Akdemir, Çak et al. 2016). Notably, adolescents‟ background factors are important in their lives and may determine their levels of self-esteem. Among these factors are the family‟s socio -economic status, family type and the home location. Family socioeconomic status is commonly determined by the parental level of education, occupation and income levels(Sang 2015).
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Evaluation of self- esteem among adolescents is a very vital issue especially low self-esteem is one of the adolescent's problems in mental health field (Henriksen, Ranøyen et al. 2017).
There is no doubt that adolescence is a turbulent stage in human development. Therefore, the demands for making a successful progression from adolescence to adulthood and developing positive self-esteem for proper mental health and natural adolescence development rest on multiple factors including adolescents socioeconomic background (Ahedor 2019).The problem of low self -esteem among adolescents have also increased due to apparent lack of interest by researchers and paucity of empirical data which made it difficult to ascertain its prevalence particularly in Egypt. The study is therefore aimed at determining the influence of Sociodemographic factors on the self-esteem of adolescent girls in secondary schools. It is hoped that the findings of this study will add up to the existing knowledge and also serve as a point of reference for further studies in this field as well as guiding psychologists and counselors when offering services or instituting social intervention programs to those with low self-esteem.
Aim of the study
The aim of the research paper is to determine the influence of socio-economic background on the self-esteem of secondary schoolsꞌ adolescent girls.
Research Questions
1. What is the level of self-esteem among adolescent girls in the secondary School?
2. What is the relationship between adolescent girls‟ socio-economic backgrounds in the secondary school and their levels of self-esteem?
METHODOLOGY
Research design
Descriptive cross-sectional design was used in this study to assess the influence of socio- economic background on the self-esteem of secondary schoolsꞌ adolescent girls.
Setting
This study was carried out among the adolescent girls in a governmental secondary school called; El-Sinbellawin secondary school for females that located in El- Nozha district
“Schools' Street” in El-Sinbellawin Town, this town far away about 20 kilometers (12 Mil) away from south of Mansoura city “the capital of Dakahlia governorate” in Egypt.
Sample
Simple random sample was used in the current study. It consists of 187 secondary school adolescent girls in the 1st and 2ndyear at the school. The studied sample were satisfied the following criteria;(a) ages from 15 to 17 years (b) Students from the 1st and 2nd secondary school grade and (c) Agreement of the female students to participate in the study(d) Free from any psychiatric disorder and chronic illness.
Tools
For the purpose of the study and to collect the necessary data, the two tools were utilized based on review of literature.
Tool (I): Socio-demographic data sheet : This tool was developed by (El-Gilany, El- Wehady et al. 2012)to assess personal characteristic of the students and their parents. This scale composed of 7 domains, including Education domain of both father and mother (8 items), Occupation domain of both father and mother (6 items), Family domain (4 items), Family possessions domain (12 items), Economic domain (3 items), Home sanitation domain (3 items) and Health care domain (1 item).
Scoring system: The total scores (84) degree. To determine the socioeconomic class of the students through using this scale, the scoring system was calculated as follows: score equal or less than 42 would be considered as a low social class, score from 43 to less than 63 would be considered as middle social class, and score equal to or more than 64 would be considered as high social class.
Tool II: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale ” RSES” (10 items): This is a widely used self- report instrument developed by Dr. Morris Rosenberg (Rosenberg 1965), and was translated by (Zayed, 2004)to assess the self-esteem. There were five items for positive self-esteem and five items for negative self-esteem. They were scored for positive self-esteem as 03 for strongly agree, 02 for agree, one for disagree and zero for strongly disagree. Reverse scoring is done for the negative self-esteem. The total score of self-esteem ranged from 0-30 for 10
items. Levels of self-esteem were classified as high self-esteem ranges from (19-30), moderate self-esteem ranges from (13-18), low self-esteem ranges from (0-12). The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach‟s α =0.72) of the scale which is adequate.
METHODS
After approval of the ethics committee, the permission of conducting the study was obtained by submission of an official letter issued from the dean of the faculty of nursing at Zagazig University to the Security Department in the Directorate of Education at Mansoura city, after that to directors of Administration in El-Sinbellawin city .The researcher visited the school , met with the Administrators of schools, explained to them the study aim and the importance of the study and procedures and asked for their cooperation to conduct the study and facilitate data collection. The students were given a verbal description of the aim of the study, the benefits, and nonparticipation or withdrawal rights at any time without giving any reason.
Additionally, they were informed that their participation in this study is voluntary, no names were included in the questionnaire sheet and anonymity of each participant was protected by the allocation of code number for each student. The researcher stressed on a confidentiality of the gathered information and will be used only for the purpose of the study. From the pilot study results, the average time to fill-in the tools were 30-35 minutes. The shared female students involved in the pilot study were excluded in the main study sample.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Data were analyzed by using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences statistical software (SPSS version 20). Descriptive statistics were computed to examine data distributions in the form of frequencies and percentages for qualitative variables, and means and standard deviations for quantitative variables. Qualitative categorical variables were compared using a chi-square test. Pearson's correlation coefficient was calculated to assess relationship between various study variables, (+) sign indicate direct correlation & (-) sign indicate inverse correlation, also values near to 1 indicate strong correlation & values near 0 indicate weak correlation. All tests were two sided. P-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant (S), and p-value ≥ 0.05 was considered statistically insignificant (NS).Simple linear regression was used to test and estimate the dependence of a quantitative variable based on its relationship with a set of independent variables.
RESULTS
Table (1): depicts the distribution of the students in respect to their demographic characteristics (N=187). Regarding the age, more than half of the included students (57.2%) belong to the age group of 16 to 17 years and the mean age was 15.7±0.75. With relation to father‟s and mother's educational level, more than one third of the studentsꞌ fathers (39.6%) were university or postgraduate degree, whereas more than half of the studentsꞌ mothers (51.3%) were secondary educated level. In regards to parentsꞌ occupation, two thirds of the studentsꞌ fathers (65.2%) were clerk and professional, whereas majority of the mothers
(71.7%) were non-working. On the other hand, majority of the students (80.2%) belong to families consisting of five members or more and (75.9%) had monthly family income just meet the routine expenses and emergencies
Table (2): clarifies that; majority of the students occupied the high level of self-esteem (64.2%), whilst (4.3%) and (31.6%) of the students had low and moderate levels of self - esteem, respectively. The mean score of that scale is 20.1±4.5
Table (3): clarifies that; the lowest mean scores of the positive statements were presented in
"On the whole, I am satisfied with myself" (2.07±.94) followed by “I take a positive attitude toward myself” (2.11±.74) and “I am able to do things as well as most other people”
(2.14±.74).
Table (4): shows that; the highest mean scores of the negative statements were presented in
“I certainly feel useless at times” (2.37±0.81), followed by “ I feel I do not have much to be proud of” (2.37±0.76) and “At times, I think I am no good at all” (2.33±0.83).
Table (5): There was statistically significant differences in studentsꞌ self-esteem levels regarding their age, scholastic year and residence (P<0.05), whereas, there was non- significant relation between studentsꞌ self-esteem levels and their SES (P>0.05).
Table (6): There were non-significant differences in studentsꞌ self-esteem levels regarding parentsꞌ marital status, parentsꞌ education and parentsꞌ occupation (P>0.05).
Table (7): There was high significant negative correlation between studentsꞌ self-esteem levels and "age” (P=0.03), “scholastic year” (P=0.002) as well as “family residence” (P=004).
Table (8): clarifies that the students‟ residence and scholastic year were significant independent negative predictors of their self-esteem levels. The model explains 7.4% of the variation in the self-esteem score, whereas, the studentsꞌ age has non-significant influence on self-esteem score (P>0.05).
Table (1):
Socio- demographic characteristics of the participated students and their parents (n=187)
Studentsꞌ Characteristics No %
Age per years:
14-15 years 80 42.8
16-17 years 107 57.2
Mean ±SD 15.7±0.75
Minimum-maximum 14-17
Fathersꞌ education:
Illiterate 2 1.1
Basic education 38 20.3
secondary education 73 39.0
University graduate &Postgraduate degree 74 39.6 Fathersꞌ occupation:
Non-working 3 1.6
manual worker 62 33.2
Semi-professional/clerk and professional 122 65.2 Mothersꞌ education:
Illiterate 5 2.7
Basic education 22 11.8
secondary education 96 51.3
University graduate &Postgraduate degree 64 34.2 Mothersꞌ occupation:
Non-working 134 71.7
manual worker 3 1.6
Semi-professional/clerk and professional 50 26.7 Number of family member:
< 5 members 37 19.8
= more 5 members 150 80.2
Family income:
In debt 3 1.6
Just meet routine 42 22.5
Meet routine expenses and emergencies and
may save 142 75.9
Figure (1): displays, the students from the 1st scholastic year represented more than half (51.9%) of all the participants.
Figure (2): clarifies that; more than half of the participants (55.6%) were rural resided
Figure (3): shows that; most of the participants (94.1%) belong to married parents
51.90
% 1st year 48.10
% 2nd year
00
Fig. 1: Distribution of the participated students by scholastic years (N=187)
44.40
% Urban 55.60
% Rural
00
Fig. 2:Distribution of the participated students by their residence (N=187)
94
% 6
% %0%0
fig.3: Distribution of the participated students by their parentsꞌ marital status (n=187)
married parents divorced or widowed
parents
Figure (4): depicts that; the two third of the participants (64.7%) belong to families with middle socioeconomic level
Table (2):
Distribution of the students by their self- esteem levels (n=187)
Table (3):
Frequency and mean scores of RSESꞌ positive statements among the participated students (n=187)
RSES statements Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
Mean±
SD 1- I feel that I am a person of
worth, at least on an equal basis with others
1.6% 1.1% 46% 51.3% 2.47±0.61
3- I feel that I have a number of good qualities
1.1% 9.6% 40.6% 48.7% 2.37±0.7
4- I am able to do things as well as most other people.
1.1% 17.6% 47.6% 33.7% 2.14±0.74
6- I take a positive attitude toward myself.
2.7% 14.4% 51.9% 31% 2.11±0.74
9- On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
6.4% 20.9% 31.6% 41.2% 2.07±0.94
17.60 low SES%
64.70
% Middle SES 17.60
% High SES
, 0
Figure 4:distribution of the participated students by their socioeconmic status (n=187)
Self-esteem levels Frequency Percent (%)
low self- esteem
moderate self- esteem
High self- esteem
8 59 120
4.3 31.6 64.2 mean± SD20.1±4.5
Minimum-maximum 1-28
Table (4):
Frequency and mean scores of RSESꞌ negative statements among the participated students (n=187)
RSES statements Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Mean±
SD 2-All in all, I am inclined to
feel that i am a failure
24.6% 28.9% 34.8% 11.8% 1.66±
0.98 5-I feel I do not have much to
be proud of.
52.4% 33.7% 12.3% 1.6% 2.37±
0.76 7-I certainly feel useless at
times.
54% 32.6% 9.6% 3.7% 2.37±
0.81 8-I wish I could have more
respect for myself.
0.5% 3.2% 21.4% 74.9% 0.29±
0.55 10-At times, I think I am no
good at all.
53.5% 28.3% 15.5% 2.7% 2.33±
0.83 Table (5):
Relation between participated studentsꞌ demographic characteristics and their self-esteem levels (n=187)
Studentsꞌ DEMOGRAPHIC
CHARACTERISTICS
LEVELS OF SELF -ESTEEM
TOTAL Χ 2 (P)
LOW NO
(%)
MODERATE NO (%)
HIGH NO (%) AGE PER YEARS 14-15 YEARS 0 (0) 24 (30) 56 (70) 80
6.8 (0.03) 16-17 YEARS (S)
8 (7.5) 35 (32.7) 64 (59.8) 107
SCHOLASTIC YEAR:
1ST GRADE
0 (0) 27 (27.8) 70 (72.2) 97
11.5 (0.003) 2ND GRADE (S)
8 (8.9) 32 (35.6) 50 (55.5) 90 RESIDENCE:
RURAL 3 (2.9) 24 (23.1) 77 (74) 104
9.6 (0.007) (S)
URBAN 5 (6) 35 (42.2) 43 (51.8) 83
HIGH LEVEL 0 (0) 12 (36.4) 21 (63.6) 33 2.5 (0.64)
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS ” SES”:
MIDDLE
LEVEL 7 (5.8) 37 (30.6) 77 (63.6) 121 LOW LEVEL 1 (3) 10 (30.3) 22 (66.7) 33 χ 2 chi square test of significant s=significant
Table (6):
Relation between students‟ self-esteem levels and their familiesꞌ social characteristics (n=187)
Familiesꞌ social characteristics
Self -esteem levels
Total χ 2 Low Moderate High (P)
no (%) no (%) no (%) Parentsꞌ marital
status:
Married 7 (4) 55 (31.3) 114 (64.7) 176
0.88 (0.64)
divorced or
widowed 1 (9.1) 4 (36.4) 6 (54.5) 11
Fathersꞌ education:
Illiterate 0 (0) 1 (50) 1 (50) 2
1.5 (0.96)
Basic education 1 (2.6) 14 (36.9) 23 (60.5) 38
secondary
education 3 (4.1) 21 (28.8) 49 (67.1) 73
University
graduate 4 (5.4) 23 (31.1) 47 (63.5) 74
Mothersꞌ education:
Illiterate 0 (0) 2 (40) 3 (60) 5
2.2 (0.9)
Basic education 0 (0) 6 (27.3) 16 (72.7) 22
secondary
education 5 (5.2) 29 (30.2) 62 (64.6) 96
University
graduate 3 (4.7) 22 (34.4) 39 (60.9) 64 Fathersꞌ
occupation:
Non-working 0 (0) 1 (33.3) 2 (66.7) 3 3.5 (0.48)
manual worker 5 (8.1) 20 (32.3) 37 (56.6) 62
clerk and
professional 3 (2.5) 38 (31.1) 81 (66.4) 122 Mothersꞌ
occupation:
Non-working 7 (5.2) 37 (27.6) 90 (67.2) 134
4.1 (0.39)
manual worker 5 (8.1) 20 (32.3) 37 (56.6) 3
clerk and
professional 3 (2.5) 38 (31.1) 81 (66.4) 50 χ 2 chi square test of significant s=significant
Table (7):
Correlation matrix of the students‟ demographic characteristics and their self-esteem scores (n=187)
#: non significant (P>0.05) *: significant (P<0.05) **: highly significant (P<0.001)
Table (8):
Multiple linear regression model for predicting studentsꞌ self- esteem score (n=187)
Item
Unstandardized Coefficients standardized Coefficients
t Sig.
Β Std. Error
Beta
(Constant) 17.824 9.459 1.88 0.061
Age 0.605 0.658 -0.103 0.920 0.359
NS
Residence -1.541 0.603- -0.182 2.56 0.01**
Scholastic years -2.340 0.984 -0.267 2.38 0.02*
R square = 7.4% Model ANOVA: F=4.853, p=0.003
**: statistically highly significant (p<0.01)
*: statistically significant (p<0.05) NS: non significant (p >0.05) DISCUSSION
Adolescence is characterized by physical, psychological and social changes in which the reciprocal exchanges between the young person and the social context play an important role (Gómez, Roldán et al. 2017). These changes beside the transition to secondary education are considered as the most stressful events during this period as it can have a negative impact on psychological well being, increase teen agers‟ feelings of discomfort around others, and threat their self-esteem (Evans, Borriello et al. 2018). As for the adolescents' self-esteem levels, nearly one third of them had a moderate level of self-esteem whereas the prevalence rate of low self-esteem was low. This finding could be owned to; most of the included students belonged to married parents who could offer a nurturing environment of attention, encouragement and love for them. Thereby, the adolescents might meet their psychological needs and so, jeopardizing their emotional securities and self-esteem. This explanation might be supported by principles of attachment theory (Bowlby 1969); “child develops a sense of self-worth out of the relationship with the primary caregiver, which then exerts an ongoing influence on his mental health throughout development”. This finding is consistent with (Shanmugam and Kathyayini 2017) in Nigeria who assessed the pattern of self-esteem among secondary school adolescents, revealed that; one percent of the females had low self- esteem. On the same line, a prospective cross-sectional study in Nigeria reported that the prevalence of low self -esteem among secondary school adolescents was low (Chinawa, Obu
Participants‟ characteristics Self-esteem score
(r) P
Age per years -0.163 0.03*
Academic year -0.223 0.002**
Family residence -0.209 0.004**
et al. 2015). In addition, (Sudha 2016)in India revealed that one third of adolescents in Elango Corporation higher secondary school had moderate level of Self- Esteem. However, (de Sousa Fortes, Cipriani et al. 2014)in Brazil a showed that more than half of the adolescent girls had low self-esteem. Whereas, (Pandey, J.L et al. 2016)in Iraq; noted that most of the adolescent girls (96.43%) had a moderate level of self-esteem. Of note, when conducting a more fine-grained analysis of RSES findings, the highest mean score among the negative statements indicated that; the students had more feelings of unworthiness that would lead to reduce their levels of self and life satisfaction, and thereby fear of engaging in social situations. This finding might be owned to; adolescents tend to set higher expectations than their abilities or make upward comparisons with people who they class as „better‟ than them. These comparisons tend to be highly unrealistic, and thereby affect negatively on the students‟ overall self-beliefs and self-image that would reinforce low self-esteem. This, in turn, might increase their state anxiety, self-focused attention, poorer predictions and perceptions of self-performance in facing social situations and so, decreased social interaction quality. The formation of self-esteem implies a long process. It can show systematic and gradual change over the life span especially during transition periods e.g., in adolescence (De Ruiter, Van Geert et al. 2017). Hence, this study revealed that self-esteem was significantly negative correlated with studentsꞌ age. To illustrate more, as students‟ age increases, their self-esteem decline. This decline is rooted in the Identify major changes that take place in adolescence. For instance, this is a time when they acquire the capacity of formative thought, enabling them to think about phenomena in far more complex ways than earlier. In addition, difficulty in being accepted by peers and relationship failures can leave adolescents vulnerable to feelings of social inadequacy. This declining trend is consistent with the socio- meter theory (Leary 2004). Accordingly, the acquisition of a formal thinking ability from childhood to adolescence is a critical developmental change (Orth 2018). On the same vein, (Fanaj, Melonashi et al. 2015) in Europe and (Gomez-Baya, Mendoza et al. 2016)in Spain were all revealed a significant negative differences in self-esteem by age group; early adolescents had the highest scores, followed by mid, and late adolescents. On contrary, (Shanmugam and Kathyayini 2017) in India and (Chinawa, Obu et al. 2015) in Nigeria;
demonstrated non-significant differences in adolescentsꞌ self-esteem based on ages.
Meanwhile, the multivariate analysis identified studentsꞌ age as non-significant negative predictor of their self-esteem levels. This finding might be owned to; other concerns that add burden to the task of self-development, specifically for adolescent girls; such as concerns with peer acceptance, sensitivity to the conflicting social role expectations, and freedom of expression. Thus, a constant ongoing struggle within the self for adjustment this new phase of life may often clash with the needs and values of the girls and lead them to see themselves as less egocentric and inferior resulting in declining in their self-esteem. However, (Cai, Wu et al. 2014) in Italy explored the development of self-esteem in adolescents and noted that;
adolescentsꞌ age was a significant negative predictor of their self-esteem. Beyond the revealed influence of scholastic grade on the studentsꞌ self-esteem levels; there were significant negative differences in their levels of self-esteem. To illustrate more, participants at the 1st secondary grade were more likely to hold high self-esteem than those at the 2nd secondary grade. Furthermore, the multivariate analyses identified the scholastic year as a significant negative predictor of their levels of self-esteem. This declining pattern might be explained as;
teenager transition to secondary school can be seen as a step into being more responsible and
autonomous. This, in turn could result in fear of inability to meet the academic expectations of their parents and others as being an important stage in determining their university education according to the Egyptian educational system, and thereby it would affect negatively on adolescentsꞌ self-esteem. Consistently, (Chui and Wong 2017) in Hong Kong investigated the role of parents‟ marital status in adolescents‟ mental well-being, revealed significant negative association between self-esteem and scholastic grade. Likewise, (Nematollahi, Tavakoli et al. 2017)in Iran, determined self-esteem and its associated factors among secondary school female students showed; significant negative differences in their self-esteem levels based on scholastic grade. On contrary, (Shanmugam 2017)in India had revealed non-significant differences in adolescentsꞌ self-esteem based on scholastic grade at secondary schools. Also, (Chinawa, Obu et al. 2015)in Nigeria studied the pattern of self- esteem among secondary school going adolescents and its associated factors, and revealed non-significant differences in the girlsꞌ self-esteem levels based on scholastic grade.
Certainly, the environmental conditions and the surroundings that adolescents live in contribute a major role in their self-esteem. Hence, this study revealed that rural resided students hold high self-esteem than urban resided ones with statistically significant difference. Moreover, the multivariate analysis identified family residence as a significant negative predictor of self-esteem levels. This finding might be resort to life style difference in rural and urban residence; modern gadgets are on a hike with the rural community. Thus, those who belong to rural area are more effective and efficient in dealing with the opportunities and resources. Noteworthy, rural areas are theorized to characterize by intimate and informal interactions (strong ties) while urban areas may possess more formal and rationalized interactions (weak ties). This in turn, helps rural resided individuals in being independent and developing a higher self-esteem. Consistently, (Fawzy, Mohamed et al.
2020) in Assiut university, Egypt assessed the level of self-esteem among the adolescents and showed that; females from rural areas had a significant high self-esteem than urban resided ones. Additionally, it was showed that family residence was a significant negative predictor of the femalesꞌ self-esteem levels. Likewise, (Mulyadi, Rahardjo et al. 2016)in Indonesia assessed the role of parent-child relationship, self-esteem and academic self-efficacy to academic stress showed that; adolescents from rural areas have high level of self-esteem than urban resided ones significantly. On contrary, (Damota 2019)examined the relationship between self-esteem, gender, and academic achievement among Addis Ababa University adolescents, revealed that; self-esteem score difference was not significant among students who grew in rural areas and urban areas. Also, a meta- analysis conducted study in China by (Zhang, Qi et al. 2017) examined the relationship of psychological health and rural/urban origins of adolescents indicated that; urban students had significantly higher scores than their rural counterparts on self-esteem. Parental support plays an integral part in fostering adolescentsꞌ mental health development. Thus, (Rahman, Shahrin et al. 2017)noted that parental separation can negatively impact adolescents‟ psychological adjustment and self- esteem. In this respect, this study proposed that students belong to married parents had more tendency to hold high self-esteem than those belonged to divorced parents, however with non-significant difference. The rationale for this outcome could be premised on the fact that;
when parents who offer a nurturing environment of attention, encouragement and love for their children especially at a critical stage of development (adolescence) are separated,
teenagers may not meet their psychological need, and thereby jeopardizing their emotional securities and self-esteem. Furthermore, stressors related to divorce are associated with mother‟s psychological distress as well as diminished maternal support, warmth.
Consequently, their teenagers react to that with fear, anger or abnormal behavior and may blame themselves for their parental conflict resulting in feelings of guilt and so, lower level of self-esteem. This finding comes in line with a recent study in Nigeria by (Mustapha and Odediran 2019) who examined how parental separation influence school adolescents self- esteem, and concluded that; parental separation had non-significant negative impact on adolescents‟ self-esteem; adolescents from separated parents more likely to experience low self-esteem compared to those belonged to married parents who were more likely having high self-esteem. On contrary, (Dhanalakshmi and Muthumari 2019)in India evaluated the effectiveness of tai chi on self-esteem levels among adolescents, showed that; girls with married parents scored high self-esteem significantly than those belonged to divorced parents who reported more low self-esteem. Also, in Hong Kong; (Chui and Wong 2015) investigated the role of parents‟ marital status on adolescents‟ self-esteem development showed that, parents‟ marital status is significantly negative correlated with adolescentsꞌ self- esteem; adolescents from married families have higher self-esteem. Surprisingly, this study showed non- significant differences in the students'ꞌ self-esteem levels based on their parentsꞌ educational and occupational levels. This finding could be owned to; parental influences might have a declining impact on the adolescentsꞌ self-esteem development due to increasing negative affect and conflicts with parents. Also, social relationships become less hierarchical throughout adolescence, with a greater focus on peers. Consistently, (Saliyan and Rani 2019) in India assessed gender differences in self-esteem among adolescents at selected PU College, Bangalore revealed that; both parentsꞌ occupation and educational levels are not significantly associated to the femalesꞌ self-esteem levels. This finding is also strengthened by another Indian study conducted by (Shanmugam 2017) to assess the self-esteem in adolescents revealing; non-significant differences in adolescentsꞌ self-esteem levels based on parentsꞌ education and occupation. On contrary, (Damota, Hussein et al. 2020)in Addis Ababa examined the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement among undergraduate students revealed that; self-esteem was significantly negative correlated with parentsꞌ educational background. Additionally, (Dhanalakshmi and Muthumari 2019)in India evaluated Tai Chi effects on self-esteem levels among adolescent girls, showed significant differences in girlsꞌ self-esteem levels based on both fathersꞌ and mothersꞌ occupation.
Contrary to what was expected, this study revealed non-significant relationship between the students‟ family SES and their self- esteem levels. This finding might be attributing to;
adolescentsꞌ awareness of their abilities, academic accomplishments, or having good relations with peers are all considered as important determinants of self-esteem development especially for the girls. Consistently, (Dhanalakshmi 2019) in India assessed self-esteem levels, stress and coping strategies among adolescent girls at secondary schools, revealed non- significant relationship between students‟ family SES and their self- esteem levels. On the same vein, (Nematollahi, Tavakoli et al. 2017) in Iran investigated the relationship between self-esteem and parental demographic factors among secondary school going adolescents indicating; SES does not determine nor influence self-esteem of the girls.
However, (Babaei, Fadakar Soghe et al. 2015) in Iran assessed self-esteem levels among
secondary school students and its related factors, revealed that SES was positively correlated with adolescentsꞌ self-esteem; students from higher socioeconomic status backgrounds significantly enjoy a faster rate of growth in self-esteem compared to low SES adolescents.
CONCLUSION
The prevalence of high self- esteem was highest recorded among younger adolescents and the rural resided ones.
In sum, the multivariate analysis identified studentsꞌ residence and scholastic years as significant negative predictors of their self-esteem levels.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Health educational programs for teenagers in order to enhance their self-worth, self-competence, communication skills and social connections
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